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Cybernetics is the study of control and communication across animals and machines. Originating in the 1940s with Norbert Wiener, cybernetics framed the world as consisting of systems—biological and technical—exploring how systems regulate themselves through feedback loops, and examining the dynamics by which they maintain stability and achieve goals through adaptive mechanisms. Second-order cybernetics, developed in the 1970s by Heinz von Foerster, was extended by Gregory Bateson emphasising the integral role of the observer within systems. <ref>Bateson, Gregory. Steps to an Ecology of Mind. University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref>. Bateson’s approach highlighted the subjectivity and reflexivity in understanding complex systems, and the connection between ecological, social, and mental systems. | Cybernetics is the study of control and communication across animals and machines. Originating in the 1940s with Norbert Wiener, cybernetics framed the world as consisting of systems—biological and technical—exploring how systems regulate themselves through feedback loops, and examining the dynamics by which they maintain stability and achieve goals through adaptive mechanisms. Second-order cybernetics, developed in the 1970s by Heinz von Foerster, was extended by Gregory Bateson emphasising the integral role of the observer within systems. <ref>Bateson, Gregory. Steps to an Ecology of Mind. University of Chicago Press, 1972</ref>. Bateson’s approach highlighted the subjectivity and reflexivity in understanding complex systems, and the connection between ecological, social, and mental systems. | ||
[[File:Macy Conference Group.jpg|left|400px]] | |||
[[File:Macy Conference Group.jpg|thumb|Macy Conference on Cybernetics group photo, 1953 | |||
1st row (left to right) T.C. Schneirla, Y. Bar-Hillel, Margaret Mead, Warren S. McCulloch, Jan Droogleever-Fortuyn, Yuen Ren Chao, W. Grey-Walter, Vahe E. Amassian. | |||
2nd row (left to right) Leonard J. Savage, Janet Freed Lynch, Gerhardt von Bonin, Lawrence S. Kubie, Lawrence K. Frank, Henry Quastler, Donald G. Marquis, Heinrich Kluver, F.S.C. Northrop. | |||
3rd row (left to right): Peggy Kubie, Henry Brosin, Gregory Bateson, Frank Fremont-Smith, John R. Bowman, G.E. Hutchinson, Hans Lukas Teuber, Julian H. Bigelow, Claude Shannon, Walter Pitts, Heinz von Foerster]] | |||
==== Strategic Foresight ==== | ==== Strategic Foresight ==== | ||